Communications in Humanities Research ISSN: 2753-7072
Home> Volumes> Volume CHR Vol.107> Article
Research Article

The Aetiology of Oppositional Defiant Disorder: The Gene and Environment Interaction

Zimu LiUniversity of Manchester*

* Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract

Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD), commonly appears during childhood and shows specific behavioral features. It is marked by frequent irritability, obvious defiant attitudes and a tendency toward vindictive actions in children. The development of ODD is closely related to the interaction between genetic and environmental factors. Recent studies have found that gene polymorphisms are linked to unusual functions of neurotransmitters in the brain. These genes include the MAOA gene, the DRD4 gene and the 5-HTT gene which regulate emotional and behavioral responses. Environmental factors also play an important role in increasing the overall risk of developing ODD in young people. These factors include experiences of childhood maltreatment and growing up in a low socioeconomic status environment. Future studies should focus on epigenetic changes and complex interactions among multiple genes and environments. This article reviews three key parts related to the etiology of Oppositional Defiant Disorder. It covers major genetic factors, common environmental risk factors and the gene-environment interaction mechanism. The paper analyzes how each factor works and interacts to contribute to the development of ODD in children. It also provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the complex nature of this behavioral disorder.

Keywords: Oppositional Defiant Disorder; Gene; Environment Factors; MAOA Gene
Published: April 28, 2026
DOI: 10.54254/2753-7064/2026.33060
Volume: CHR Vol.107
pp. 58-64
Download PDF

References

  1. Viding, E., McCrory, E., Baskin-Sommers, A., De Brito, S. and Frick, P. (2024) An 'embedded brain' approach to understanding antisocial behaviour. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 28(2), 159–71.
  2. Herrera-Luis, E., Benke, K., Volk, H., Ladd-Acosta, C. and Wojcik, G.L. (2024) Gene–environment interactions in human health. Nature Reviews Genetics, 25(11), 768–84.
  3. van Goozen, S.H.M., Langley, K. and Hobson, C.W. (2022) Childhood Antisocial Behavior: A Neurodevelopmental Problem. Annual Review of Psychology, 73(1), 353–77.
  4. Koyama, E., Kant, T., Takata, A., Kennedy, J.L. and Zai, C.C. (2024) Genetics of child aggression, a systematic review. Translational Psychiatry, 14(1), 252.
  5. Lachowicz, M., Suchanecka, A., Chmielowiec, K., Boroń, A., Chmielowiec, J. and Prabucka, K. (2025) Analysis of Serotonin Transporter Gene 5-HTTLPR Polymorphism and Its Impact on Personality Traits in a Sample Without Neuropsychiatric or Substance Use Disorders. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 26(8), 3718.
  6. Pan, Q., Chen, S. and Qu, Y. (2024) Corporal punishment and violent behavior spectrum: a meta-analytic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1323784.
  7. Anderson, A.S., Siciliano, R.E., Henry, L.M., Watson, K.H., Gruhn, M.A. and Kuhn, T.M. (2022) Adverse childhood experiences, parenting, and socioeconomic status: Associations with internalizing and externalizing symptoms in adolescence. Child Abuse & Neglect, 125, 105493.
  8. Kant, T., Koyama, E., Zai, C.C., Beitchman, J.H. and Kennedy, J.L. (2022) Association of the MAOA-uVNTR polymorphism with psychopathic traits may change from childhood to adolescence. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 272(8), 1517–21.
  9. Siva Prasad M.S, Shibu Vardhanan Y, Shaji Prabha S.P, Jayesh K. Joseph and Aneesh E.M. (2022) The Occurrence of MAOA-uVNTR Genotype and Adverse Childhood Experiences in Male Recidivist Violent Offenders: Indian Scenario. Neuropsychiatric Investigation, 60(1), 14–21.
  10. Gadow, K.D., DeVincent, C.J., Olvet, D.M., Pisarevskaya, V. and Hatchwell, E. (2010) Association of DRD4 polymorphism with severity of oppositional defiant disorder, separation anxiety disorder and repetitive behaviors in children with autism spectrum disorder. European Journal of Neuroscience, 32(6), 1058–65.
  11. Massullo, C., De Rossi, E., Carbone, G.A., Imperatori, C., Ardito, R.B. and Adenzato, M. (2023) Child Maltreatment, Abuse, and Neglect: An Umbrella Review of Their Prevalence and Definitions. Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 20(2), 72–99.
  12. Degli Esposti, M., Pinto Pereira, S.M., Humphreys, D.K., Sale, R.D. and Bowes, L. (2020) Child maltreatment and the risk of antisocial behaviour: A population-based cohort study spanning 50 years. Child Abuse & Neglect, 99, 104281.
  13. Gresko, S.A., Hink, L.K., Corley, R.P., Reynolds, C.A., Muñoz, E. and Rhee, S.H. (2024) An examination of early socioeconomic status and neighborhood disadvantage as independent predictors of antisocial behavior: A longitudinal adoption study. PLOS ONE, 19(4), e0301765.
  14. Rutter, M., Moffitt, T.E. and Caspi, A. (2005) Gene–environment interplay and psychopathology: multiple varieties but real effects. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47(3-4), 226-61.