The Decline of the Xiongnu: Research on the Impact of Internal Division of the Xiongnu and the Strikes by Han Dynasty on the Decline of the Xiongnu

Abstract

The decline of the Xiongnu Empire, a powerful force in Eurasia, was the result of a combination of external military pressure from the Han Dynasty and deep internal divisions within Xiongnu society. This article systematically examines how these two factors interacted to ultimately lead to the collapse of the Xiongnu Empire. Drawing on a diachronic analysis of ancient Chinese texts and modern scholarship, this study demonstrates that the Han Dynasty's strategic shift from defensive to offensive, beginning with Emperor Wu and Emperor Xuan, severely weakened the Xiongnu militarily and economically. Key battles such as the Battle of Mobei, led by generals like Wei Qing and Huo Qubing, undermined Xiongnu control over strategic areas such as the Hexi Corridor and the Western Regions. At the same time, internal instability caused by succession disputes, tribal divisions, natural disasters, and the Han Dynasty's "divide and rule" policy exacerbated the Xiongnu's vulnerability. The First Great Schism of 60–51 BC and the Second Schism of 46–48 AD led to the coexistence of multiple khans, the massive surrender of numerous tribes to the Han Dynasty, and the eventual division of the Xiongnu into Southern and Northern Xiongnu. The Southern Xiongnu submitted to the Han dynasty, while the Northern Xiongnu, weakened by military attacks and economic blockades, eventually migrated westward. This study concludes that the synergistic effect of Han dynasty military attacks and internal divisions was the decisive factor in the decline of the Xiongnu Empire, a process that profoundly altered the political landscape of ancient East Asia.