Communications in Humanities Research ISSN: 2753-7072
Home> Volumes> Volume CHR Vol.70> Article
Research Article

The Situation and Responses of Jewish Women under German Antisemitism from the End of the Nineteenth Century to the Middle of the Twentieth Century

Fangyang XuFaculties of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Nottingham, Ningbo, China* Zhuo ChengSchool of Social Development and Public Administration, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou, China Xinyue LiFaculties of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Nottingham, Ningbo, China *Corresponding Author. Email: [email protected]

* Corresponding author:

Abstract

This paper examines the multifaceted experiences and responses of German Jewish women against the backdrop of rising antisemitism from the late nineteenth century to the mid-twentieth century. It highlights the complexity of their dual identity as both women and Jews, which rendered them particularly susceptible to intersecting forms of discrimination and social marginalization. This dual identity not only subjected them to heightened inequality but also complicated their navigation through a society marked by entrenched prejudices. The analysis encompasses political, religious, and educational dimensions, revealing the specific harms inflicted upon Jewish women due to their unique position. Politically, they faced exclusion from mainstream feminist movements, which often overlooked the impact of antisemitism, while also contending with patriarchal structures within Jewish communities. Religiously, their roles were often constrained by traditional expectations, yet they sought to assert their agency. Educationally, the pursuit of higher learning emerged as both a tool for empowerment and a site of struggle, as systemic barriers limited access to opportunities. In response to these challenges, German Jewish women engaged in various strategies to advocate for their rights and enhance their societal standing. By focusing on their distinctive dual identities, this study aims to contribute to a deeper understanding of the interplay between gender and ethnicity in historical contexts, thereby illuminating the resilience and agency of Jewish women in Germany.

Keywords: jewish women; dual identity; antisemitism; Germany
Published: June 9, 2025
DOI: 10.54254/2753-7064/2024.23615
Volume: CHR Vol.70
pp. 93-103
Download PDF

References

  1. Volkov, S., Germans, Jews, and Antisemites: Trials in Emancipation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
  2. Bergen, D.L.. War and Genocide: A Concise History of the Holocaust. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2016.
  3. Kaplan, M.A., The Making of the Jewish Middle Class: Women, Family, and Identity in Imperial Germany. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.
  4. Planert, U., Antifeminismus im Kaiserreich: Diskurs, soziale Formation und politische Mentalität. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1998.
  5. Meyer, M.A., German-Jewish History in Modern Times, Volume 3: Integration in Dispute, 1871-1918. New York: Columbia University Press, 1998.
  6. Verfassung des Norddeutschen Bundes, art. II, para.3, sec. 1. documentArchiv.de. Accessed August 5, 2024. http://www.documentarchiv.de/nzjh/ndbd/verfndbd.html.
  7. Chamberlain, Houston. Die Grundlagen des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts. München: Verlagsanstalt F. Bruckmann, 1903.
  8. Bleich, J. David and Arthur J. Jacobson, Jewish Law and Contemporary Issues. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015.
  9. Kaplan, Marion. “Bertha Pappenheim.” Jewish Women’s Archive. Accessed August 5, 2024. https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/pappenheim-bertha.
  10. Guttman, Melinda. “‘One Must Be Ready for Time and Eternity,’ The Legacy of Bertha Pappenheim.” On The Issues Magazine, accessed August 8, 2024. https://ontheissuesmagazine.com/feminism/one-must-be-ready-for-time-and-eternity-the-legacy-of-bertha-pappenheim/.
  11. Loentz, Elizabeth. Let Me Continue to Speak the Truth: Bertha Pappenheim as Author and Activist. Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press, 2007.
  12. Francesconi, Federica and Rebecca Lynn Winer. Jewish Women’s History from Antiquity to the Present. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2021.
  13. Levy-Rathenau, Josephine. Die Frau als Technische Angestellte. Berlin: Teubner, 1914.
  14. Levy-Rathenau, Josephine. Demokratische Frauenberufspolitik. Berlin: Demokratischer Verlag Berlin, 1920.
  15. Palmén, Angelina. “Josephine Levy-Rathenau.” Jewish Women’s Archive, accessed August 6, 2024. https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/levy-rathenau-josephine.
  16. Nürnberger, Jürgen, and Dieter Maier. Josephine Levy-Rathenau: Frauenemanzipation durch Berufsberatung. Berlin: Hentrich & Hentrich, 2013.
  17. Zhang Yingying. "Women and Social Work in the Weimar Republic." Master's thesis, Central China Normal University, 2013.
  18. Lu Hui. "Women of the Weimar Germany." Master's thesis, Central China Normal University, 2008
  19. Luo Pan. “A Study of the relationship between Female voters and the Rise of Nazi Party in the later Weimar Germany.” Master's thesis, Fudan University, 2014.
  20. Fan Yufei. “The Establishment and Development of British Women's Right to Vote in Legislation.” Master's thesis, Zhongnan University of Economics and Law, 2019.
  21. Meyer, Michael A. Response to Modernity: A History of the Reform Movement in Judaism. 1st ed. Chicago: Wayne State University Press, 1995.
  22. Hyman, Paula E. Gender and Assimilation in Modern Jewish History : The Roles and Representation of Women. of Samuel and Althea Stroum Lectures in Jewish Studies. Washington: University of Washington Press, 1995.
  23. Wallach, Kerry. ‘Gender and Jewish History.’ Journal of Modern Jewish Studies 11, no. 3. 2012.
  24. Baader, M.T. Gender, Judaism, and Bourgeois Culture in Germany, 1800-1870. Indiana: Indiana University Press, 2006.
  25. Klapheck, Elisa. Fräulein Rabbiner Jonas—The Story of the First Woman Rabbi. San Francisco: Jossey Bass, 2004.
  26. Kaplan, M.A., The Making of the Jewish Middle Class: Women, Family, and Identity in Imperial Germany. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.
  27. Kaplan, Marion A. Between Dignity and Despair: Jewish Life in Nazi Germany, 2011.
  28. Weissman, D., “Bais Yaakov: A Historical Model for Jewish Feminists.” The National Library of Israel, Accessed August 6, 2024. https://www.nli.org.il/en/articles/RAMBI990006212980705171/NLI
  29. Spinner, Samuel Jacob. ‘Else Lasker-SchüLer and Uri Zvi Greenberg in “The Society of Savage Jews”: Art, Politics, and Primitivism.’ Prooftexts 38, no. 1 2020.
  30. Kaplan, Marion A. Between Dignity and Despair: Jewish Life in Nazi Germany, 2011.
  31. Oben, F. M.. The Life and Thought of St. Edith Stein. Alba House, 1988.
  32. Kaplan, M. A. and Moore, D. D. (Eds.). Gender and Jewish History. Indiana: Indiana University Press, 2011.
  33. Baader, M.T. Gender, Judaism, and Bourgeois Culture in Germany, 1800-1870. Indiana: Indiana University Press, 2006.
  34. Meyer, Michael A. Response to Modernity: A History of the Reform Movement in Judaism. 1st ed. Chicago: Wayne State University Press, 1995.
  35. Veidlinger, Jeffrey. “Families, Rabbis and Education: Traditional Jewish Society in Nineteenth-Century Eastern Europe,” East European Jewish Affairs 41, no. 1-2 (August 2011): 102–3, ‘The Germnan’, https://doi.org/10.1080/13501674.2011.587659., accessed 8 Aug 2024.
  36. Peter Bergamin ‘Early Days’, unpublished chapter, p.39-40.
  37. Prentice, Alison. “Review of The Education of nineteenth Century British Women, by Margaret Bryant and Sheila Fletcher.” History of Education Quarterly. Accessed August 5, 2024. https://doi.org/10.2307/367750.
  38. Seller, Maxine S.. We Built up Our Lives: Education and Community among Jewish Refugees Interned by Britain in World War II. 2001.
  39. Carvalho, Jean-Paul, Mark Koyama, and Michael Sacks, “Education, Identity, and Community: Lessons from Jewish Emancipation,” Public Choice 171, no. 1-2 (January 7, 2017): 119–43, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11127-016-0400-1.